The super-human concept in Science Fiction

NEWMEN TECHNOLOGY
Chapter 6: Future Writing: Using and Understanding Science Fiction Nomenclature

The superhuman concept in Science Fiction by: GF WILLMETTS

'...we have the technology.' End quote from the Universal TV series 'The Six Million Dollar Man' (1973-1978) despite the fact they were probably 30 years too early.

'Dolly isn't Science Fiction come true. She's a Sheep.' Dr. Ian Wilmut: project leader of the 1st cloned sheep, Roslin Institute 1996

Look at how children play games pretending to be their sports heroes or the larger-than-life action heroes. This isn't very far removed from African tribesmen beliefs that dressing in an animal skin will give them the attributes of the animal it belonged to.

To be the best is an ethic that seems to dominate current human societies. It's almost a tribal genetic trait. People want to be better than they are. Some will take it to extreme levels with steroids, risking life-threatening side-effects.

If it can't be done personally, then it is by emulation. Humans don't want to appear to be failures. It loses personal self-esteem. Is it any wonder there is an envy for the powers of the comicbook super-hero? The belief that we can be better than we already are is probably a key attribute to consider when we examine super-humans as applied in Science Fiction.

It is a common daydream that anyone who has read comicbook super-heroes can recognise. To be stronger. Have heightened senses. To fly. To possess some extra advantage that other people don't have and sometimes don't suspect the hero possesses.

The only difference lies in higher stakes where we become what is, to some extent, still only dreams today but might be possible in the near future. This chapter of Science Fiction Nomenclature explores the concept of super-humans, their relationship to society and SF story plausibility considerations.

There will also be the usual thoughts regarding guidelines and what's already been done should you decide this might be an interesting avenue for further exploration when writing your own Science Fiction stories. It's one of man's greatest desires to be able to exceed the limitations imposed by nature or failing that reach the limits that the body can tolerate.

From the latter's ambitions we have our athletes, gymnasts, weight-lifters and body-builders. It takes dedicated training to acquire such physiques not instant radiation or gene-splicing therapies. All-round athletes tend to lack the strength and speed of someone who specialises in one or the other. It would appear that for humans there can only be a middle-ground in either field.

The illegal use of enhancing steroid drugs can promote rapid development of muscular tissue but risks fatal damage to the liver and other vital organs. There is a limitation to how long any sort of 'perfection' can be maintained with the human body before the aging process tears it apart and muscle is rapidly converted into fatty tissue.

If anything, Man is currently in an evolutionary ghetto. He has reached the apex of physical development and only marginally, albeit slowly, developing intellectually. Any change has been the adaptation of his environment to his needs than to himself. Whereas we have examples of other species diversifying to take advantage of the seas, land and skies, Man has had to devise his own ways to do this in an auxiliary function to himself.

He creates boats, cars and airplanes to do the things he himself could not do unaided. In this respect, the major evolutionary development is in the comparative development of his brain. It isn't just in his development as a tool-maker - as our close relative, the chimpanzees, have demonstrated similar skills - but also in the ability to imagine and then create such images on a physical level.

It is this distinction that has led Man to have such a dominate role on this planet. Before we take this on to a more galactic comparable scale (see Chapter 11: Predator Be Thy Name), it is inevitable that Man will see it as a necessary step to see how he can improve himself through his own scientific breakthroughs and developments.

It is from the creative use of his imagination that Man will make any breakthrough in his own physical and/or mental development than wait for evolution to make the next step. What was once only considered the domain of Science Fiction is rapidly becoming close to fact today. What was thought to be only fiction just over 20 years ago has become accepted technological words in society.

Cybernetics and bionics refer specifically to the mechanical replacement or enhancement given to organic life. The possibility of seeing a cloned human in the next decade seems less of an impossibility and more a matter of when. With recent work in regrowing nervous tissue likely to have its own breakthrough the possibilities related to cybernetics suggests better control of physical enhancement as well.

Genetic modification or gene-splicing of unrelated species to each other, creating chimeras, also offers possibilities in providing better chances of survival if not on our own planet but others suitable for colonisation.

Such changes in our genetic code can jump the slowness of conventional natural selection in a couple generations in ways previously undreamt of. Although SF authors led the way in discussing or using such 'super-humans' as a means to an ends in their stories, none have actually come up with anything new in such arrangements.

Outside of Psionics, as discussed in Chapter 4: Something In Mind, there are only really 4 options that can be considered when developing a human being away from what we would largely regard as the 'baseline standard issue' we're born with.

SF authors have tended to be less interested in the changes themselves but how this affects the individual or group to that of a standard society. Both sides of this issue will be explored in this chapter. It should also become apparent that there is still plenty of possibilities for neo-SF authors in this subject range and it is probably still a fruitful development area for fresh ideas.

Before examining the changes Man can commit and change to himself, we first should look at what Nature can do if left to its own devices. Natural selection is very much Charles Darwin territory. He perceived life as 'survival of the fittest' against a background of predator interest and environmental conditions. In the food chain, it's in the interest of any species to propagate or breed sufficiently to ensure that enough of its genetic material contained in a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) chromosome helix is passed to the next generation.

Bisexual reproduction allows for recombinant combinations to allow for the greatest variety of change allowing for every environmental change eventuality. A different colour pattern, for example, can camouflage against a particular predator or warn them away by signifying their body contents are poisonous.

One only has to look at the variety of insects and bird life to appreciate how effective this is. Each change brings out a sub-species. Such traits are carried over into the 'higher' predators although the camouflage factor is used to conceal them when stalking their prey.

The effectiveness of these patterns can be summarised by the fact that there is so little variation within the set patterns and an individual species has stabilised in this format to the exclusion of other patterns. Albinos in the wild rarely survive infancy simply because they are so easily recognised by predators. With the primates, colouring became singular and when early Man had less body hair garbed himself in animal skins for warmth than camouflage.

Only on a multi-generation scale can we see any significant change as both prey and predators up the stakes for survival and other traits begin to change to preserve the species. Failure to do any of this results in a species extinction. I should point out this is only the briefest of summaries. There are a lot of detailed textbooks that examine all the aspects of natural section in the animal kingdom for you to draw your own conclusions.

The important thing to consider here is that natural selection is a means to ensure a species survival. Animals at the bottom of the food chain are more likely to breed quickly in quantity than quality with less of a need for anything beyond rudimentary intelligence. Animals at the top of the food chain tend to be more sophisticated hunters and far more likely to teach their young how to hunt their prey.

Intelligence is largely a bi-product of this process combined with having time for things other than eating. My own personal observation is that Man is largely an evolutionary anomaly trying out intelligence as a survival trait. If it was a common trait, then we'd see a lot more animals developing along this particular route, assuming of course, that they could regulate themselves to the changing environment.

Daniel Galouye's novelette 'Project: Barrier' suggests that after Man, the bear might be his successor in the intelligence stakes. In reality, Nature could well ignore intelligence as a survival trait.

It took a variety of conditions and physical attributes, like the development of hand co-ordination and speech, to give Homo sapiens a jump up the evolutionary ladder. A comparative examination of the primates indicates the real development of the brain has only occurred with this branch of mammals.

It isn't enough that the brain is more complex but is also supported by a body that can make the best use of it. If this wasn't the case, cetaceans like dolphins and whales, from sheer brain size and apparent complex 'song' speech would have developed beyond their environment.

As the sea apparently provides all their needs, there hasn't been any requirement to develop any physical aids like tools to assist them. It isn't just intelligence or the right body but the need to command or conqueror environments than be ruled by them that will signify the dominant species. Cetaceans actually dominate their sea world by adaptation but are unable to adjust it further to their own needs.

The development of speech also meant that there was less reliance on genetic traits to pass information from one generation to the next. It enhances the learning pattern to adapt to environmental conditions rather than migrate through poor periods. It allows the compartmenting of skills, allowing some true creative thinkers to develop their skills.

If anything, this is also a demonstration of segregation on an evolutionary scale allowing growth of social skills and what is commonly called 'civilization' today. It has been speculated that future man is likely to have an over-developed brain in proportion to a minuscule useless body, supported by robot slaves. This imagery was supported for a time even in SF circles but seems improbable these days. The brain requires a healthy body to survive and evolution tends towards survival traits than degenerate.

Human brain-size is unlikely to grow larger than it already is. We currently only use about 10% of our brains' potential. It isn't size which is important but the complexity and capacity to use what's there that signifies the greatest potential. Hardly surprising that the Science Fiction 'superman' tends to be endowed with superior intelligence or Psionic abilities than physical attributes. Oddly enough, comicbook super-humans do the reverse, tending to support the develop of physical change to take advantage of the graphic imagery.

Where additional brain complexity will really take us is hard to say. It may not necessarily be intellect. This doesn't imply that we aren't likely to become any smarter than we are, just unlikely to happen. On a statistical level, the range of moron to genius tends to follow a regular curve with every generation and every predatory species.

We might appear more intelligent than our forebears but it comes largely from how we accept the growing changes in our environment and those most willing to adapt. With improving educational systems and access to knowledge, we set our own limitations subject to individual intellect. Poul Anderson's novel 'Brain Wave' depicted that our overall intelligence has been impaired by our Solar System moving through a natural electro-magnetic inhibitor.

Once out of this field, not only does Man's IQ shoot up to 500 IQ, but every other animal becomes equally smarter. Being smarter doesn't lead to greater happiness because emotional inadequacy and lack of purpose of what to do with their lives becomes its own downfall.

This was quite revolutionary for 1954 when Anderson wrote this book but didn't expand to cover all its implications. If anything, it indicates the problem of a conventional human writing about intellectual giants that can make sense to normal intelligence readers. We are limited by our own intelligence level. Would a story written by a super-intelligent being make any sense to us in the same way? Doing the reverse has the same problems.

No doubt this is the reason why Anderson dwelt on the emotional inadequacy than the intellectual change. Why else do city populations leave with no real explanation about where they went or how they survived? It's left to the reader to imagine than any speculation. If the development of the brain isn't in an intellectual factor, one can always consider it as a psionic switchboard. One of the more interesting aspects of A.E. Van Vogt's 'Null-A' novels is the development of its chief protagonist, Gilbert Gosseyn's double brain potential.

It develops the skills to similarize or teleport across the galaxy once he has an image in his head of where he is going. He uses a similar technique to manipulate electricity and later begins to perceive future events once he realises he can do so. Despite opinions to the contrary, this was rather ground-breaking stuff for 1949. Van Vogt's forte was in writing super-humans in his novels and is worth exploring 'Slan' and 'The Silkie' amongst his other books to examine how he handles such beings.

There are few SF authors who have covered such variety. With the world becoming more of a global village, it is inevitable that the future will be an amalgam of the genetic material of all the diverse races of mankind than the current segregation that often seems the norm.

Quite what the final mix will show as the most dominate characteristics can be left to the imagination. We could well end up being darker skinned - to protect from ultraviolet light, with the oriental epicanthic fold eyelids to protect the eyes. The build, hair and facial features may still vary, but the individual characteristics that serve us best in extreme environmental conditions will end up being a major part of our race's survival not the dictates of any racial purity.

With Man capable of living anywhere he chooses, it is these two factors that are likely to stay the most variable. Overall, the survival of any species depends on having a variable set of characteristics to tackle any situation. This not only includes environmental change but resistance to new strains of viruses. The black population carry the sickle-cell trait in their red blood cells and although this can cause its own complications also appears to protect them from malaria.

It's unfortunate that Nature has its own way of weeding out those with no resistance but is also a practical demonstration of 'survival of the fittest' in practice. SF authors have applied Selective Breeding to encourage certain characteristics to be brought out in a matter of generations than over several millennia. It certainly is a short-cut and a clever plotting device for rapid development of any quirky breeding program spread over a millennia or two, even if it tends to focus on the end results than what leads up to it.

Robert Heinlein's 'Methuselah's Children' and it's sequel, 'Time Enough For Love' with the Howard families - named after their instigator than any specific member family - bred for long life. The program was set up to pair off families who demonstrated extended longevity and ultimately kept going when medical science could keep it going even longer.

The problem with this intense cross-breeding in the early days resulted in a large percentage of retarded idiot children or a select few who demonstrated psychopathic tendencies. The biggest benefit came from the rather more randy exploits of its longest living member, Lazarius Long, who ultimately was related to all the long-lifers in the galaxy.

Immortality has its own price in boredom leaving Long always on the look out for greater challenges to stimulate himself. The longer the life, the more the 'seen that, done that' scenario develops. Frank Herbert's 'Dune' saga was an observation of the Bene Gesserit cult who used Royal bloodlines to develop a prescient saviour. They badly miscalculated by a generation when instead of a female they had the male Paul Attrides and his sister, Alia, from the Lady Jessica's desire to give her husband a son proving their undoing.

Oddly enough, it was Attrides' own children that enforced the final solution the Gesserit sought. One should not assume that it is always humans who want to breed better humans. E.E. 'Doc' Smith's 'Lensmen' series had the discrete alien Arisian genetic program to produce humans better able to manipulate the lens device. The alien Pierson's Puppeteers of Larry Niven's 'Known Space' stories subtly bred humans to yield those exhibiting a knack for good luck.

The result here gave the extremely lucky Teela Brown, who accompanied the Puppeteer Nessus, the human Louis Wu and the K'zin Speaker-To-Animals to 'Ringworld'. By being at the right place at the right time, Brown saved this famous artefact from destruction. These examples should illustrate the point that things don't necessarily go to plan or do as expected. From a writer's point of view, one should examine any planned breeding program for its failures as much as their successes.

The biggest problem is always that people don't always do what is expected of them. They can't act as mathematical pre-determined units. As that's an accepted normality of life, it should be no hardship in consideration in any story planning. Selecting what traits should be bred should always be considered against the overall plot. It can also turn into 'convenience plotting' where the right person appears at the right time to solve a problem so requires imagination in seeking out such solutions from an unusual insight or produce an unexpected twist to keep the reader interested.

Although natural selection is always Nature's guiding light, the means for any radical change has always been through mutation. Generally speaking, this normally affects the offspring than the parents as the DNA helix is the most vulnerable to change. In adults, for example, the effect of radiation is mostly a detrimental terminal cancer, not to mention infertility.

One should also distinguish between the terms. A mutation is an effect on the DNA helix. The result, usually applied to the off-spring, is a mutant. Any effects to an already living being can equally be a mutate or mutant. Usually the term 'mutate' is used as it distinguishes between the two terms. Should the traits be carried onto further generations, then it is no longer a mutant but a sub-species of the original baseline species. There are only four options for enduing mutation: Natural, Enduced, Chemical and Radiation.

Their examination here will start from least to most probable causes. Radiation Mutation is probably the most revered form of genetic change in SF. It was popularised in films and comics and caught the public imagination largely through Marvel Comics' Incredible Hulk. It was even used as a means to develop monsters in SF's early films. It is also the most wrong choice to make. In reality, as can be seen from the effects on the survivors of the nuclear fallout after the two atomic bombs over Japan in 1945, there were no super-humans or monsters.

The survivors outside of the immediate area who showed no overall physical effect themselves were affected on the genetic level. Any children that weren't stillborn suffered severe genetic damage resulting in loss of limbs, sensory organs or imbecility. DNA is extremely fragile to radiation and if this is your choice for mutation then thoughts of the consequences to your characters have to be considered deeply.

A side-note on the Hulk and other Marvel Comics-based gamma-induced mutants is that they were supposed to have a mutant gene that presupposed a favourable reaction to gamma radiation or any other form or radioactivity. A number of their friends weren't so lucky.

This shows some considerable after-thought by their writers to this problem even if it would probably not happen elsewhere. In our enlightened times, this is not the method of choice. That's not to say people haven't taken radiation's worse effects as an indication of failure in the DNA code to such conditions. The film 'Beneath The Planet Of The Apes' combined epidermis loss with developed psionic abilities and insanity in the remaining mutated humans.

This was quite a revolutionary statement indicating that the pay-off for radioactive bombardment having mixed effects. Chemically-enduced mutation is almost as bad. It is potentially less destructive than radiation to DNA but has a lot more control over potential damage.

As such, it should also be considered in the same breath as Induced Mutation. Certain chemicals make the DNA helix easier to manipulate for genetic manipulation or gene-splicing. The effects of gene-splicing will be dealt with under its own subject further in this chapter. As a means to itself, the use of any chemical without further supporting aid should be regarded as dangerous as standing in irradiated room.

The best examples of detrimental effect in our reality is the effects on the offspring of mothers given thalidomide to reduce morning sickness but damaged the DNA of their children resulting in stunted or no limbs. A harsh reminder that places such manipulation nearly up the top of the list with radiation as not a particularly inspiring direction to use. In the real world, any experimental activity of this nature to change the DNA code would always be carried out in animals prior to any direct work on human DNA.

To anyone reading this who dislikes animal experiments and abhorred such thoughts needs to consider the following argument and thoughts that I will say, bearing in mind their key argument:- It is always said that the results of experiments on other animals cannot possibly reflect the outcome on human DNA. Radiation or chemical exposure to any part of the DNA matrix similar to the parts most associated with the same places in our own DNA helix will have a similar effect.

Our nearest relative, the chimpanzee, is only 2% different to ourselves on a genetic level. The first diagnosis will be for bad or malevolent rather than beneficial effects. Where thalidomide was concerned, no one bothered to consider the effects on subsequent offspring, just the relaxant effects on the pregnant mothers.

The results, thankfully, has made all pharmaceutical companies much more thorough in their tests before allowing certain medicines loose on the public. Failure to do so tends to lie in court with multi-suit claims for damages that risks the company's public name, image and untold expenses. Fortunately, the more reputable companies in the Western world adhere to their Government protocols in upholding this principle.

Fortunately, elsewhere lacks the expertise, facilities or funds to be truly effective in such schemes. Any initial tests on subsequent generations has to be carried out on any species that has a quick breeding cycle turnover and why mice, rats or rabbits are usually the first mammal subjects. With some statistical data of potential problems, tests can be carried out on primates before ultimately Man himself. Even then, initial trails tend to be under control conditions.

Essentially, this involves using two groups of people, one given the 'medicine' and one without as a comparative control, to observe the difference. This is also done in a 'double blind-situation', so that neither the examiners or the subjects know who is having the treatment although all are treated alike. Should the overall results prove that there is a marked difference for the better and no placebo or wishfulfilment effect taking place would such treatments be considered for general use.

The days of a solitary scientist working in a basement laboratory producing genetic monsters clearly do not represent what would go on in reality. It isn't just resources or talent, but skilled manpower that is required. Such trained people tend to be absorbed into large companies than work independently.

Licences are required in most countries to do human experimentation and even then, only for the benefit against certain diseases. Although there are certain countries in the world that would and are only too willing to allow such work be done, there would be some difficulty in exporting the results elsewhere in the civilised world, even with a fait accompli success.

This doesn't mean that such changes couldn't be a drug side-effect. David Cronenberg's film 'Scanners' presented this scenario with the drug 'ephemerol' that yielded people who had various mental abilities. Many of them were also mentally disturbed and unprepared for what they were. This might also explain why so many of them were killed by gunfire rather than retaliated against attack.

This shouldn't rule out the need, at some point, to do such experimentation quickly should necessity make it a priority to save human life. The deterioration of the ozone layer and increased exposure to ultraviolet light thereby increasing skin cancers may force a rapid development of genetic treatments without lengthy delays. One can only hope there aren't that many detrimental side-effects.

Scientists today are beginning to make sense of Man's genetic code from the Genome Project that will allow rapid DNA repairs, which will be dealt with below in discussing gene-splicing. A problem with a subject is there so much cross-linking with similar overall results. Whether this will yield a perfect society is hard to say.

There are a lot of genetic defect illnesses that endanger the quality of life that could be resolved. Government sanctions of such genetic repairs would ultimately save any health service vast expense on what would have been considered incurable cancers or other long-term illnesses. The main worry is how far such manipulations would go? Using such techniques to pre-determine intelligence or physical appearance would probably be frowned upon.

Creating a self-perpetuating DNA helix that doesn't deteriorate with age implies immortality is possible. Unless this was balanced with a smaller population, we also risk over-population or the worse case SF scenario of an elite group of powerful rulers as with Frederick Pohl's novel 'Drunkard's Walk'. A system where the people in charge are changed periodically at least permits development by change than maintaining a static society.

There are possibilities for somatic genetic engineering. This would allow some effect on a particular individual's DNA but would not be passed onto the next generation should he or she breed. Some genetic manipulation is extremely complex and no guarantee such work would be foolproof.

With a society that tends to demand instant results, one often forgets Nature also yields its own surprises amongst its Natural Mutations. Diversification tends to be the key to any species survival, allowing at least one variant to be saved from natural disaster. There are far too many examples to turn this chapter into a biology lesson. However, we need an example and I opt for the dinosaur. Despite becoming rapidly extinct some 200 million years ago, its diversification resulted in the birds we have today.

A rather drastic change in appearance from their ancestors but ensured survival of the overall DNA adapting to its environmental conditions. Whether Man would go through quite so many changes for his own survival has been a case of much debate and many SF stories. An examination of today's society can give some possible hints where survival tactics are being employed against Mankind. Despite current thoughts regarding anti-biotics overuse hitting the food chain reducing Man's immunity to certain viruses, early death only appears to kill those most susceptible.

In evolutionary terms - and this is not being callous or unsympathetic to anyone reading this who has relatives or friends who have died in this manner - this is Nature's way of weeding out those who wouldn't survive against our own willingness to keep them alive. It's also interesting to note that Third World Africans seem to have a better survival rate against AIDS than their Western counterparts.

In the broader sense, it would appear that the dangers to Man have more to do with his reaction to bacteria and viruses than anything that is likely to produce dangers on the physical macro level. That doesn't mean to say that there hasn't been radical natural mutants. Nature weeds out those least likely to survive.

Whether a single successful mutant can introduce its DNA into the wider genetic pool is highly debatable. In the rest of the animal kingdom, such mutants tend to happen in multiple occurrences before breeding to allow a chance for propagation, suggesting a reaction to a common problem than a freak occurrence.

From a mechanics point of view, this tends to suggest that it is probably a combination of the correct genetic pairing with a reaction to environmental change to yield such mutations. They dominate by having the greater survival opportunity and cross-breeding in such situations with positive attributes. There are vast areas of the DNA helix that doesn't appear to be used. This is either disused material from earlier evolutionary change or genetic material waiting for the required conditions.

It could be both. Nature tends not to be dependent on only two choices for survival. It would only be called 'mutation' simply because it hasn't been seen before. What must always be remembered is that unless a mutation is allowed to propagate, then it will only be a 'sport' and die out. Such sports are probably happening all the time but dying before breeding because the conditions that would enhance their own survival haven't arrived.

From a Science Fiction perspective, all of the above gives immense range for potential writers. Not only in the form and type of mutation but also the ethical considerations. It's rather interesting that today's society is questioning the ethics in ways that SF writers rarely bothered with until the sub-species had developed a foothold in society.

This awareness could possibly be attributed to the awareness of such problems through earlier SF material. Yes, they were concerned about the mutant strain's survival but it was and is often depicted as a fight for supremacy in one form or another against normal humans. The argument that this is the direction that all Mankind is likely to be heading tends to be ignored. Considering how much SF is depicted as seeing the future, these sorts of arguments are sorely neglected.

As to the nature of the mutation, this author can only suggest that any thoughts should be based on the most primal reaction of all species: Survival! Present a condition that is likely to persist then provide genetic mutants most likely to survive and there's an instant story waiting to be written. Geneticists are not all later-day Frankensteins with Nietzschean pretensions. Much of their work will eventually resolve many inherited genetic diseases that plague Mankind.

Of course, one shouldn't neglect Man's intervention in such activities. This is not so much in terms of manipulation of his own DNA, but to the results of terrorism. It has been widely speculated that the dangers of an atomic bomb are nothing compared to a biological bomb. Bio-bombs could be either a virus or potentially something capable of attacking a certain genetic code combination wiping out a large proportion of any population.

Such techniques are being developed to control insect pests although there is concern as to how this will affect other parts of the food chain. What is more frightening is someone or a small group with the right background and experience could make such a bio-bomb in a basement and devastate the world in an instant. The survivors of such a bomb would have their own biological protection and propagate it in the same way that genetic sports in the animal kingdom come into their own.

The overall cost to the genetic pool of losing potential DNA recombinant material for other evolutionary emergencies could seriously devastate Mankind's own development and risk extinction. Probably the best example of a biological bomb in action has to be the start of the 'Wild Cards' mosaic anthology series edited by George R.R. Martin. Instead of being made by humans, it is an alien device. A proportion of humans are killed outright.

The survivors either suffer deformities, called Jokers, or improvements, the Aces. We might well prevent bio-bombs being made by ourselves but there is nothing stopping aliens wanting to experimenting on us themselves. The diversification of our DNA is the only thing likely to give our species the greatest chance of survival.

As we're in the arena of speculation, let's consider why we would need a 'super-human'. Certainly, it wouldn't be to act as vigilante crime-fighters. They might not be needed on this planet. Interstellar journeys or any length of time in zero-gravity has proven that Man loses calcium from his bones, presenting a rather fragile problem on returning to Earth, let alone landing on a different planet.

Deliberate gene-splicing of someone living or in the next generation to provide someone with the right DNA material to compensate for this might be considered good practice. This could be accomplished by preventing calcium loss or increasing the bone density or both.

With stronger heavier bones, one would also have to contemplate increasing muscle density to support it as well. Then there is the supply of the necessary nutrients to feed all this additional tissue means a much improved digestive and blood circulation system, not to mention a decent sized heart to propel the plasma.

For just a simple facility as 'super-strength' we are talking multiple mutations, a lacking in any would kill instantly. It would be unlikely, with what we currently know about our DNA, to indicate that anything but deliberate artificial manipulation could do so many changes so quickly. Even then, it would take several generations to guarantee that it was successful.

Whether individuals bred this way would have the intellect to match the body is also debatable. A super-strong individual would be a disaster if he was also proportionately clumsy. It's also the only case that could be argued for a perpetuating DNA helix and limited immortality to allow explorers time to reach another planet.

As mentioned above, there is a distinct possibility that unused DNA material might be from now relegated parts of the evolutionary tree. During the course of the development of the human foetus, we develop rudimentary gills for a period. A manipulation of such material could possibly provide a marine human but it would be unlikely that he would be a match for a dolphin without the aforementioned bone and muscular support, let alone a fat layer to insulate from the sea's cold temperature.

Considerations for possibilities along these routes require thought as to what is really needed to make it work. To just give gills, as indicated above, is simply not enough to ensure survival underwater. Where genetic manipulation would come into it's own would be in adapting for survival on alien planets. Here, we are entering the current controversial subject of taking genetic material from one species and successfully transporting it into another.

Such techniques are called gene-splicing. In essence, providing the consequences are fully appreciated, it is only another short-cut on evolution's lengthier process. It is also a subject that has been explored extensively in Science Fiction, especially with James Blish's 'The Seedling Stars' where colonies are laid at every planet on a starship's journey, each being adapted specifically to the environmental conditions they discover.

It can also be used, as with Fred Hoyle's 'A For Andromeda' to incorporate alien DNA into a human matrix. A genetic change that will make Man survive in what would otherwise be a hostile atmosphere, whether by gaseous content or air pressure, could only be regarded as an aid to living outside of an environment suit. It should be pointed out that changing from an oxygen/nitrogen atmosphere to something more toxic is certainly a lot more complex in making use of say, a higher carbon dioxide concentration.

In comparison, a change of air pressure to something at the height of the Andes is more a question of being adapted to making better use of the air available by merely living at such altitudes. Providing the best options doesn't appear to be contrary to any desire for survival.

If anything, it can be viewed as an improvement on Nature's more random pattern. There is nothing to say that the effects of such manipulations couldn't be reversed at a later date. What worries the purists is the potential dangers of such manipulated DNA being inherited, through lack of choice, to future generations. What is often failed to be realised is that such children are likely to take such changes for granted rather than think they are abnormal.

Manipulating human DNA with members of the animal kingdom produces, for the want of any other word, chimeras. Although it's doubtful that we would want to take on the attributes of animals because it might make us physically resemble them as well, the reverse might not be true. There are two examples of this.

The earliest is H.G. Wells' novel 'The Island Of Doctor Moreau' where surgical techniques result in chimeric cross-breeds. Wells was less concerned with the experiments then in how the man-animals rebelled over their treatment. In that respect it was mostly an example of metaphor in the same fashion as George Orwell's novel 'Animal Farm'.

A means to show an action that explores what it means to be like this any overall consequence to the reality as a whole. Of more importance is the works of Cordwainer Smith and his 'Instrumentality Of Mankind' stories. With only a small number of long-lived humans, animal stock was manipulated into humanoid shape. Classed as the 'Under-People' and given servile jobs with little regard beyond that until they fought for their rights in a rebellion that ended in the slaughter of many of their number.

Again, it hits on the old nerve that no creature likes to be slaves to their masters. Oddly enough, David Brin's 'Uplift' novels display an almost contrary view where aliens and later humans strive to bring other species up to articulate sentient level. In our case, humans concentrated on dolphins and gorillas. Such activities are also encased in galactic bureaucracy and diplomatic one-upmanship largely because there is so much dissension on what really is sentient.

To have any real say in such a society, a species has to show it can elevate other species from its own world. Genetic manipulation and cross-breeding can give rise to all sorts of appearances.

As with Olaf Stapleton's 'Sirius', where a sentient dog is created who has to adjust to a human world. Being only one of a kind is never fair to any species. In reality, one can only hope a breeding stock would be generated. The isolation of a solitary creature is likely to generate anything but wholesome thoughts in its subject.

On a galactic scale, adaptation to different environmental conditions might well be regarded as the norm than not. It can probably allow protection from disease and sort out conventional genetic diseases that we would rather not see passed down from generation to generation.

As an SF writer considering these cases, it is for you to balance which way you determine the argument showing all the possibilities in action. John Varley's novel 'The Ophiuchi Hotline' shows a reality where genetic manipulation and surgery is carried out as a matter of course. Many astronauts have their legs amputated as they consider them redundant in space. When they arrive at a planet, they often have them re-grown again. With many people having exotic appearances, everyone is perceived as being unique and the perception between beauty and ugly is markedly different.

It is highly unlikely that such developments would end up making us all the same. Our mindsets in many people tend to prefer some difference between us. A demonstration of the widespread variety in mankind indicates that isn't likely to happen. Even an overall intelligence enhancement is not likely to change this either.

Being smarter does not necessarily mean everyone is going to have similar IQs or be a genius. Brainpower is more than intellect but in problem-solving. We don't all solve problems the same way or even want to do so in many cases.

The small percentage of such people isn't likely to change over night. The mass population would rather follow than lead. As to what constitutes the 'superior man' is extremely hard to say, mainly because there is nothing to compare it with other than wishful thinking or fiction. I doubt if anyone would really want to have similar powers to Superman, even if they were possible.

With great strength would have to be great restraint lest everything is crushed in your hands by mistake. It would be a fearful life to lead. Everyone has their own individual wish list. Being beautiful shows no reflection on character. If some strove to be identical, then others would strive to be more individualistic.

This author has to say this with some reservation though. One only has to look at cult crazes like the Punks or our current day fad with tattoos and body piercings to realise that what originally started as a means to be different becomes tribal when so many duplicate it. Whether this will be reflected in genetic manipulation is open for speculation, especially as not everyone appears affected by these fads.

Of course, there is one resolution to this problem of manipulating human DNA and that is to stop calling them 'human'. We might prefer the term 'android'. People who only appear to be human by default than by birth. An explanation of terminology would be appropriate here.

A robot is something that is no more than a mechanical convenience that might be set in a humanoid form. An android's design is entirely to have it pass as a human from an exterior view and be capable of independent thought. Under the skin, it could be mechanical, organic or both. From a logistical point of view, it would be easier and cheaper to grow an android than make a robot.

Once the technique is developed, androids wouldn't need to be grown until the near arrival at a long distance stellar journey, thus conserving supplies. Philip Mann's novel 'The Pioneers' has explorer starships carrying genetically superior adjusted pairs of individuals who are adapted for various survival conditions. The male Angelo is adapted with a bear rather than a human arm.

On earth, both Angelo and his female partner, Ariadne, are feared for their differences then regaled after a long voyage. Clifford Simek's novel 'The Werewolf Principle' illustrates an android capable of taking on the attributes and personality of the dominate species of a planet for a time to gain a better insight before being recalled.

What is neglected is the fact that the erasure of these aliens from his DNA is not complete and under certain conditions re-surface with transformation into their shape and separate personalities. Whether they would act like the 'Replicants' in the film 'Blade Runner' is debatable. The belief that they were a sub-class of the human race and a non-aggressive trait in regard to humans would act in a similar fashion to Asimov's Three Robotics Laws would offer the best protection from rebellion than a limited life span.

Whether this would create any parallel in making Man act the role of God is always a debatable point and an over-used cliché in SF. This is one author who wishes that they would be regarded as just another sub-species. If brought up as humans they will respond as humans. Treat them as inferior or expendable without due reason presents androids with psychological damage. In such states, is it any wonder that they would turn on their makers?

From a social aspect, we are mostly conditioned from birth to act in certain ways to enable us all to live together. It is only when people break certain elements of this ethical code which interferes with the welfare of others that punitive action tends to take place. The 'criminal' element is more an indictment that some people can't live within a certain system rather than the system itself doesn't work. [Political systems will be discussed in detail in Chapter 10: Speeches And Dictates.]

Whether androids or whatever we choose to call them will suffer a similar affliction will depend entirely on our own maturity in how we deal with them. Hopefully, if they are to populate planets that aren't necessarily supportive of Man as a whole, they will at least carry the best parts of his ethical code. In this fashion, Man is not acting as God, but as a means to spread himself throughout the galaxy.

The allegory to Godhood would then tend not to have much foundation. If anything, such thoughts are an indication that we must look at all possibilities for any significant ethical meaning than take the most obvious choice thinking that it has never been done before. Man's greatest gift is in the moulding of his environment to suit his needs. If he can't do that, the second best thing is to adapt to his new environment.

Outside of this planet, the most discussed topic for planet transformation is terra-forming. However, such projects take centuries to complete and might not always be the best option to select. If the environment can't be changed, then steps would be taken to ensure the best protection against the extremes nature throws against us.

With the advances in our understanding of biology and support technology, we may side-step nature and create the next stage in our own evolution. This time, not out of bio-engineering, but from merging with technology. The advances in prosthesis technology has taken great strikes in recent years. Amputees can now get rather sophisticated limbs which not only resemble the original but can do some of the more elementary functions properly.

Connecting up nervous tissue to such limbs can only be a few years away now. It is only cost that appears to be the stumbling block from making a cyborg a real possibility. Oddly enough, it was the TV series, 'The Six Million Dollar Man' that really brought home to the general public the technological superman. It was based on Martin Caidin's original novel 'Cyborg' that depicted the reconstruction of a treble amputee test pilot/astronaut after a near fatal crash. The detail in the book still have people questioning today whether it was based on reality, largely because of Caidin's own USAF/State Department background.

Whichever, the book is worth examining as it covers a lot of fine detail that couldn't be depicted on the TV screen, like Steve Austin's re-enforced spine that made lifting weights easier or the error in making his legs the same length when there should be a marginal different between them for balance. There is also a rather interesting psychological profile of how Austin adjusts to his condition and his potential impotence.

Just in case anyone is missing the actual meanings or confused by them. Cybernetics is the comparison and control of communication systems in organics using mechanical means. Bionics is the design of mechanical systems to duplicate organic functions. Although Austin was called a 'Bionic Man', he was in fact a Cyborg, a CYBernetic ORGanism, although both terms could equally apply. The 'Bionic Man' moniker probably stuck in the public eye because it reminded people that beyond the mechanics there was a man under it all. 'Cyborg', in comparison looks too 'scientific' to lay people, did not catch the viewer's eye as actually relating or meaning a human with mechanical implants.

The TV series provided amputees with a possible future and cybernetics and bionics have since become by-words in the English vocabulary. Every time there is an advancement in artificial limbs, these words are bandied about by the media. Hardly surprising with the developments in technology. Like Austin, the only thing that really holding back any real development is cost.

That and linking the nervous system in a step-up way to electronic 'nerve' controls. Still, throw enough money at the idea and attempts will be made to prove it's possible. While we're examining what to do with cyborgs, it is in everyone's interest to read the antithesis of Steve Austin in the form of astronaut Roger Torraway, who 'volunteered' for cybernetic implementation for a trip to Mars with some rather frightening implications in Frederick Pohl's novel 'Man Plus'.

Without wishing to disclose too much of the plot, this presents a good argument for only using amputees or cloned material for cyborg treatment than tear apart a perfectly whole human solely to use his nervous system and training experience. In C.L. Moore's short story, 'No Woman Born', the diva Deirdre's brain placed is placed in a robot body when her original is practically destroyed in a fire.

In some ways, this body is more perfect for dancing than her original, compensating for her extreme loss. This is rather an extreme treatment for a cyborg, but no less different than Helva, in Anne McCaffrey's novel 'The Ship Who Sang', who in intricately linked up with her starship that serves as her body compensating for her own dysfunction. When people think of cyborgs, they tend to think only of limb or sense replacements rather than enhancements attached to the body.

A secondary respiratory system would make more sense than just remove the original set of lungs for the sake of being able breath in a different atmosphere. A connection to a computer system would also be useful for alternative analysis and probably give faster information.

The brain would then serve as deciding which option to select and still add that 'X' factor of randomness that computers cannot compete with. Marvel Comics' 1970s 'Deathlok The Demolisher' gave a wonderful insight into this cybernetic exchange with Luthor Manning's personality interacting with his in-built computer.

It was so well recognised that it probably made it impossible for the film 'Robocop' to take a similar route without copyright infringement. The reassertion of the original personality in both cyborgs is a standard theme that wouldn't have risked being sued over. It's interesting to remind everyone that both Caiden and Pohl's cyborgs were originally official secrets rather than known to the public at large.

Such projects might not get public approval if they could be considered a danger to public safety or use in covert activity. Unlike robots, cyborgs are part human and given to the same emotional make-up as ourselves. When this aspect is forgotten and we think of them as machines, we only have ourselves to blame. There is also the consequence that when such cybernetic implants are possible that pressure wouldn't be raised for funding to provide versions for all amputees rather than a select few.

There wouldn't be a necessity for enhanced strength or speed other than conventional perimeters. Most amputees would be grateful for conventional movement and sensitivity to touch. One shouldn't neglect other possibilities. As with the economic cheapness of growing androids than expensive robots, genetic science could make it easier to grow replacement limbs and organs using the patient's own DNA as the starting point for regeneration.

Of all the animal kingdom, only reptiles have shown the ability to re-grow a tail or limb. Identify the genes and splice them into a human DNA helix presents the possibility for re-growth. Alternatively, we might also identify said genes in the human helix, assuming they are there, and work out what is inhibiting them from acting in a similar way. Both methods offer as much choice as cloning.

Cloning has become a rather controversial subject in the media of late, despite the fact that it's only been in the past few years that any breakthrough has been made with cloning mammals. There is still no knowledge of how long Dolly the cloned sheep will live before dying of old age. If her DNA helix has the same grown-up stems like her parent, then the number of times it can care for the body before slipping into old age needs to be recognised.

If proven true, it will dash the hopes of the very rich that they can clone themselves as heirs to continue their fortunes. Making clones has always been recognised as a simple practice, providing one can work at microscopic levels without overtly damaging the cells involved.

You take a cell from the kidney and remove its nucleus, replacing it with the a sex cell nucleus. As it would be difficult to develop this cell outside of a womb, it is implanted in the female womb and grown to term like all pregnancies.

The main difference being this would be a genetic duplicate or clone of the original. Just because it has the same genetic make-up does not make the clone an exact duplicate. Personality traits develop from a generation of experiences and as yet cannot be imposed into another brain. The clone would still be a separate individual. At this present time, the real use for clones is for organ replacement.

Our science has not advanced sufficiently to grow the heart or other organs for such purposes although now it is only a matter of time than an impossibility. Growing a full body clone outside the womb would cause enough problems ensuring the right conditions and nutritions are fed into it. Filmed SF clone stories tend to suggest that full-grown clones could be cultivated in this manner.

What these scriptwriters fail to realise is that even if that was possible in a shorter interval than the equivalent in normal growth, without exercise the clone would fall flat on its face the minute it tried to walk or move. Muscles to be effective have to exercised. Digestive systems have to be used to allow them to digest food. The nervous system has to be engaged to allow it to bring the body to function.

It would have the mind of a baby. Comparatively, to grow an organ for transplant would be simple in comparison as only effort to grow a liver, kidney or heart would be requited. Larry Niven's novel 'A Gift From Earth' explores the reaction of colonists who discover that cloned parts are being sent to them. At first they are horrified, believing that these ships contain small children.

Later, they discover that the organ sizes are relative and have to be grown further before transplant. The story illustrates how fear can set in before all the facts are known. Should we reach the state that we can grow specific transplantable organs then the world of medicine would receive a massive overhaul. There would be no necessity to wait for someone else to die to harvest their organs.

There would be no need to use genetically modified pigs for donors either, which would please the anti-vivisection lobby. Cloned donor organs would have no problems with being incompatible so no life-time of drugs to prevent rejection. The only price would be understanding the human DNA helix enough to know what to stimulate so only a heart, liver or kidney was grown.

The biggest delay factor would be waiting for cloned material to grown large enough for transplantation. It might even be possible to encourage the body to regrow a lost limb in situ, allowing it to be exercised as it develops.

Everything else, from surgical technique to recuperation, is already understood. The last step is picking our way through the threads of the human DNA helix to total understanding. The Human Genome Project has taken the initial step but further development and implementation rests with hesitant governments. If this paragraph was written a couple decades ago, it would be regarded as Science Fiction. Today, we are near to facing reality.

Whether it is viewed as cautionary in the 'Frankenstein' mode or as a blessing and life-saver, depends entirely on whom we wish to listen to. The dividing line is a very murky grey. The impetuous for change will come from people who's very life depends on such experiments and undoubtedly there will be no shortage of volunteers. From an SF writer's point of view, such events in our reality should be observed both from the technical POV and also world reaction.

It provides so much useful information as to how different people reacts. In a story, this makes it easier to decide how such events should be given to the public or why it might stay covert. Years ago, this could only be speculated. Today, this should be considered a valuable resource examining relationships to any plans you have regarding changes to specific humans or the race as a whole.

Oddly enough, with so many SF publishers intent on selling massive epics that little thought has been spent on speculation of this sort any more. In the past, SF has gone through many cautionary tales and some times with favourable insight on situations similar to this. There is very little in the SF mass market with current reflections and attitudes applied to such scenarios or advancements.

One could easily surmise that there are too many writers with backgrounds in the hard sciences writing SF who would risk writing anything so controversial. A layman writer with knowledge of biology and the soft sciences could make informative speculation within a story on the social and personal implications.

One advance that always appears to come up with SF clones is whether the personality can be transferred or copied into the new brain. After all, it should have the same make-up to make it possible. As of yet, no one has been able to determine whether the personality is chemical, electro-chemical or both, let alone if there truly is a soul.

To copy an impression of one brain to another is way beyond anything our own science can generate. In SF, there are examples of this in two examples previously mentioned. With Frank Herbert's 'Dune' saga, the ghola/clones Duncan Idaho, the personality is copied with modification from body to body. With Van Vogt's 'Null-A' books, Gossyen's memories are shared simultaneously with his extra bodies/clones. He might die, but his memories live on believing himself to be the same individual.

This raises a rather interesting point as to whether memory constitutes personality. Without our memories, we are nothing but babies. Whether it can be proven that the so-called 'soul' takes memories has never been proven. Even racial memory of previous generations is largely supposition. People under hypnosis recanting past lives don't appear to choose anyone in their direct ancestry to support the carriage of a racial memory.

Given the choice, the memories of a direct ancestor would be far stronger to recall than of someone not so linked. By saying that, I'm not entirely sure there never is a racial memory, just that hypnotic regression might not be the source for individual personalities.

It was commented above that Man might well be at the end of evolutionary line, at least with any changes in his physical appearance. This shouldn't be regarded as the end point of that particular subject. More than one author has speculated on one particular development. This is where the segregation of abilities leads to where humans can only work together as a group. Theodore Sturgeon's novel 'More Than Human' creates a Homo gestalt where five people act psionically together.

The arms are two girl teleporters. A baby acts as the collected memory. Another girl is a powerful telekinetic manipulator. The only problem was the original head was an idiot and lacked the ability to see where it could all lead. When he died, this replacement was more streetwise but had to learn to adjust to his responsibilities to the group.

The most significant thing about such a group is that it could survive the death of any one individual. A rather unusual development in Man but little speculation as to whether this was a one-off or other gestalts were in the making. Another Frank Herbert novel, 'Hellstrom's Hive', chooses not to use psionics as the linking factor but the good old-fashioned ant colony approach with everyone in it working towards their common good.

This literally followed ant behaviour, building their nest below ground with breeders, soldiers and workers/drones with little in the way of free-will. Oddly enough, the leader was male than the expected female queen. This book was regarded as rather controversial at the time, largely because it took such extreme point about human behaviour that made them almost alien.

Considering the difference in function between the colony and conventional human, this shouldn't have been regarded as surprising. One can easily draw comparisons to the attacking colony humans in 'Quatermass And The Pit' to realise such implications of being an outsider to any such group instantly becomes a hostile menace and a racial war.

Yet another demonstration of tribal grouping taking effect. Whether such colony groupings would work in reality is debatable based on our current level of civilisation and where internally, many governments work by consensus than be of one mind on any decision. Other than that, there are certainly some similarities existing already.

The armed forces are the soldiers ready to defend the hive. The breeders are every woman at the age to provide children. The workers tend to be everyone else. Unlike the ant colony, subjective roles are more flexible allowing a change in the pecking order from worker to management or a progression through the ranks.

As with the Sturgeon novel, it can also fall apart if the wrong head runs the whole show. T.J. Bass' novel 'The Godwhale' has everything manipulated in one form or another. The biggest is the Rorqual Maru, a giant artificial intelligence submergible whale ship. The largest population are the hive-dwelling Nebishes who regard outsiders as degenerate. They themselves have cannibalism tendencies. The Benthic tribe are aquatic although lack gills.

The Nebish practice eugenics and clone their warriors from an original human manipulating a single gene to make them dependent on their tribe for survival. The original human, Larry Denver, is also alive preserved as a cyborg. This book is an example of using many of the techniques discussed above. 'The Eyes Of Heisenberg' novel by Frank Herbert depicts a future reality where there is a four-tier society. The lowest are the Sterries who are incapable of breeding.

Next, the Breeders who are so few but can produce viable genetic material that is grown outside of the body, after a thorough inspection and occasional manipulation of the genetic material. Genetic manipulation and enzyme treatment has increased the life span of the most useful and even these are cloned to ensure continuation.

The management of the world is in the hands of a few thousand 'perfect' near-immortal sterile Optimen whose emotional make-up is at best described as unstable and self-censor themselves from any mention of death. An off-shoot from earlier experimentation are the Cyborgs who facilitate the transport and repairs of the city.

With such a slow growth cycle, mankind is facing extinction and it isn't until there is a rebellion affected by two of the factions that this society begins to examine its problems. Such examples cover the full range of societies taking such policies to logical conclusions where super-normal is normal. There is still room for development by any SF writer but always wise to examine such works to ensure old ground isn't repeated in quite the same way.

Although the 'Messiah Effect' will be dealt with in more detail in Chapter 7: 'The Saviour Principle', it would be appropriate to consider the effect of having a superior or super-human in our midst. One can hardly fail to be impressed by anyone who can demonstrate abilities that are basically, for the want of a different word, super-human. There would be a fair proportion of worship and envy depending entirely on what he or she does with such gifts. If this is combined with a super-intellect as well, one might well consider such a person as a natural ruler as well.

The big question is whether the super-human would want to rule? It's always been seen as the big bad villain's aim to rule the world. But would anyone, even a super-human, want to take sole responsibility for such a task?

He or she would have to have an applicable ideology that could solve all the world's problems as well as have an efficient staff to see that it was all carried out. Such a system would mean a totalitarian or dictatorship society. Leaders in such a position, even if they do what is overall considered the right thing in the long run, are likely to risk being deposed simply because not everyone is likely to agree to everything asked of them.

Quite how you would say no to someone so superior is hard to say. If the super-human can kill with a gesture, it is also likely that he will ultimately kill all his followers and be the sole ruler of the world. One can only hope such super-humans are content with ruling their own lives and not imposing their views on everyone else. Whether they can stop baseline humans imitating their value systems remains to be seen. Most of the examples above have operated from the point of view of Man changing his own shape genetically or mechanically over-riding mutation.

If Man has reached the apex of his physical existence, is it conceivable that the next stage would be that of a non-physical non-corporate cycle. In other words, an existence as pure energy. Arthur C. Clarke's novel, 'Childhood's End', shows the final transformation of Man's last generation into such a gestalt consciousness joining another such being indicating they were no longer human even in childhood.

Whether this can be viewed in terms of survival or a progression of change is up to the individual. Such changes indicate that the transformation would change any priorities we have in the physical world. Whether we would show any interest in the physical world or the rest of our species afterwards is hard to speculate upon.

If the next evolutionary plain has its own tier system, we would spend an equal amount of time climbing the tree before it would be regarded as prudent to play God with the physical universe.

This can only be regarded as theory mainly because we still have problems with what actually constitutes the soul let alone what would remain in a non-corporate existent form. If such a state was possible, even if only as a means to travel the galaxy, then one has to wonder what purpose would it serve?

To cultivate primitive races like the makers of the monoliths in Arthur C. Clarke's novel '2001: A Space Odyssey'? To wander without purpose seems at odds with the needs of evolution. Still, it's all fodder for stories for the SF writers and open to as many possibilities as can be imagined.

OK, now that we understand something of what is involved in what types of super-human are available, let's apply this knowledge into making something or one viable for an SF story.

There are four basic divisions in selecting a design for a super-human:-

1. Mutation - natural, induced (chemical or radiation).
2. Chimeras - hybrids, usually with animals but alien crosses might be viable.
3. Bio-mechanics - mechanical enhancement or cyborgs.
4. Scratch-building - androids.

As can be noted above, they each have their advantages and pitfalls. The level of technological development will depend largely on what is selected. Outside of mutation, none of the other options are quite possible below our current technological standard. To be any good at them, a conservative estimate would probably add a couple hundred years to allow for any perfection at the techniques or breeding programs (see Chapter 12: Venus In Blue Genes).

This might not prevent you setting such characters in the present, but would require a rational development breakthrough to explain how it was possible if done today or the near future. The use of alien technology is an old cliché short-cut that any writer should be capable of better alternatives as a choice as it borders on deux ex machina.

It is also important to decide why, in regard to the last three options, it was done. It isn't enough to say, 'Because we can do it!' Any such project will involve a lot of manpower and finance.

Rumour has it, as I write this, that the next incarnation of the 'Six Million Dollar Man' will be the 'Six Billion Dollar Man'. This is probably in line with inflation and the thought from cybernetic experts even if this author thinks at most the bill would be nearer two billion.

The construction would be actually quite cheap compared to the research in getting the design right. This doesn't necessarily mean that you have to go into detail of construction or design, but the reasons and rationales add necessary depth to the under-foundations of your story. If all the pitfalls for the super-human capability is sorted out, it will also sound more credible and show some thought has been spent in creating your cyborg.

Sticking on a bionic arm without shoulder and spine support will result in it falling off the second any attempt to lift something that weighs more than itself or the hydraulic system needed to perform the action. Your research may not need to go beyond a layman's approach to requirements, dependent entirely on what you need to reveal.

Knowing the limitations of such characters is equally important. If they can't do the job with what you've given them, don't do a re-think that demands upping their abilities. You've given them a fantastic edge already.

Apply your imagination to the situation and work out a solution to your problem from what you have available. Don't assume your level of imagination is just to use the exotic or fantastic because it looks fake to the experienced SF reader who will quickly dismiss it and your reputation.

The use of super-humans within a story requires more than lip-service to their abilities but an in-depth level of what it means to be who they are. Taking the use of comicbook super-heroes as a basis for design is not altogether wise in Science Fiction. More from the point of scientific improbabilities and their failure to always justify why they can work.

Since it is a recognised background for many SF readers, it can't really be neglected when examining the super-human concept, if only to avoid making similar mistakes. Too often, there have been examples where the idea has worked against reality. Take, for instance, the ability to generate cold. It is totally against the laws of thermal-dynamics. Cold cannot be generated, rather it is the removal of heat that will freeze an object.

If the heat is removed, where does it go? Applying known science laws to what you want to see your super-human use tends to present more possibilities than less. Such an ability could provide any individual super-human with the ability to generate or re-direct heat absorbed from objects frozen.

This aspect couldn't be neglected from lack of knowledge or intelligence of the character. Without directing the heat energy elsewhere, his body would probably explode. The neglect of such characters invariably places them in a minor class of their own suitable for teamwork operations.

For prose fiction, it is important to look at all the science questions that are bound to come up and decide the consequences and mechanics of such abilities. This does not necessarily mean having to stop for explanations but certainly in demonstration of what is happening is almost a certainty.

The difference between a hack writer who just turns out stories and a 'quality' writer is usually determined by how much thinking is placed behind the development of such characters and situations.

If the reader sees answers to almost unspoken questions being delivered within the story than it will be an assurance that sufficient work has been done in providing a credibility to your reality. Having characters that can fly presents all kinds of problems.

Defying gravity is only levitation and still dependent on the planet's orbital velocity to stay relative to the ground. Remove inertia, and the super-human would be flying away from the planet at high velocity because the galaxy would have moved away from him. To fly within an atmosphere would require working between these two extremes.

The 'Superman flight pose' makes no allowances for what propels him along. The fact that he's an alien from a heavier gravity suggests that Earth's atmosphere might well be viewed like we see water and he is in fact swimming. If this applies to an alien from Krypton, then a similar view has to be examined for other flying humans, even if one has to wonder how they can vary their body density.

Then again, DC were never particular on how science did anything so is perhaps not a good example to study. Marvel Comics' outlook, courtesy of their editor/writer, the late Mark Gruenwald, defined the flight of most of their characters as a psionic manipulation of graviton particles, a sub-atomic particle that kept everything together normally.

Expansion of this theory would no doubt explain feats of super-strength as well by extending the field to prevent the object falling apart by its own weight pushing against itself. Energy manipulation, outside of psionic abilities, produces an interesting problem.

In a thunder storm, lightning grounds to earth to complete the discharge. Should a super-human be capable of generating energy - as such it has to belong to the electro-magnetic spectrum and obey its laws - then no matter how far it is projected it has to discharge to earth. Targeting it at other people accurately would be quite a challenge. Such discharges could not be endless either and would need a substantial time to re-charge.

The exaggeration of the senses causes its own problems. True telescopic and microscopic vision means a vast distortion of the retina, not to mention a greater density of nerve endings to provide any resolution detail. Saying that, tissue density might overcome the problem of optical length but also provide other eyesight defects.

So-called X-ray vision used to penetrate material to see inside is also fraught with similar problems. Just because it is called 'X-ray' doesn't mean it is actually employing 'X-ray radiation' which has a low amplitude and wave-length making it impossible to use other than close-up.

The only implication is the ability to penetrate other material. Saying that, it would be easier to have a psionic sense here than think eyes could really be capable of such feats. The sensitivity of the senses in such situations has always been underplayed.

A being able to detect a pin drop a mile away is likely to be bombarded with excessive noise continually and likely to be driven mad unless it could be shut off. To believe any super-human could downplay such abilities on a regular basis would be a better demonstration of their endurance capacity than the actual abilities themselves.

With all forms of mutation, whether by natural or artificial means, it is also important to consider the effects of drastic change. The DNA chromosome helix is complex and certain traits are created by a combination of genes with possible side-effects. A new species will not last long should its first member be sterile or infertile.

All the eugenics studies in the world will not resolve such problems. Cloning would not really help matters, only recombinant cross-fertilisation would improve the gene pool. With prose Science Fiction, it is important to address such problems.

This does not necessarily mean providing a detailed scientific argument although you're welcome to try. What it really means is an examination of what it does to the character and how he or she addresses such problems.

Such actions will show that you, as the author, have thought through your ideas and all its implications. Often such actions also provides a greater opportunity for development within the reality than just playing lip-service to any basic ability.

The old Stan Lee adage applied to Spider-Man of 'With great power, comes great responsibility' has tended to permutate throughout the super-human kingdoms with their good versus evil. If anything, it is the reverse of 'Absolute power corrupts absolutely' that is generally applied to super-human villains and despots.

It is also something that should be applied even within SF prose. To give a character super-human abilities means it should affect their life. To have them merely turn it on and off as berates their need to use said abilities forgets human motivations or heightened autonomic reflexes. It is how such people get through life that will appeal to the reader.

Any innate ability will be used in spite of itself. To merely act like other humans is only an action of restraint not shutting down the abnormal capacities. The temptation to show off such abilities to any degree would be difficult for anyone to resist. When it comes to a disaster when the abilities are there to aid and save lives, it would be difficult to resist and sit back, thinking this will compromise my secret.

Although it's regarded as a cliché, is it any wonder so many of these super-humans in the comicbook realities adopt secret identities and disguises to do what comes naturally? The fear of being exploited by others, like politicians, who don't possess such abilities must always lie in the backs of their heads.

Super-humans in prose SF tend to ignore this area, no doubt because it tends to represent adolescent fantasies of power possession than anything (sic) meaningful. In that respect, the focus is of adaptation of a new race with a normal human society and ultimately becomes its own cliché.

Far too often, Van Vogt's 'Slan' novel and Henry Knutter's 'Baldie' short stories collected anthology 'Mutant', have been used as the template for such stories of tribal oppression. From a nature and evolutionary point of view, it is the purpose of any new species, whether it possesses super-human attributes or not to propagate itself.

As such, any new species must potentially be a threat to the previous predominate species. This is a basic survival reaction at the most basic emotional level and hence its frequent use in SF. Infrequently, there is a tendency to forget that a fair proportion of the human race are likely to forget any racial feelings and intellectually accept such changes if they are not presented as an immediate danger.

Considering a super-human sub-species would be superior produces some interesting ideas regarding who would be racially inferior in any such attacks. If there aren't noticeable physical differences, it would make sense for any new species to be quiet than demonstrative of their superiority but that is hardly good for any story plot.

Oddly enough, Van Vogt's 'The Silkie' has the metamorphic Silkies co-existing with the telepathic 'Special People' and regular humans without raising too much comment, although there is strict regulation regarding their conduct on Earth. Quite how any such regulations in any storyline could be carried out without some serious hardware or conventional co-operation baffles this author.

Any sub-species would have their own definitions of acceptable behaviour that would be incomprehensible to another sub-species without their gifts. What of the future of super-humans in SF? With medical science beyond the borders of what was contemplated in the last fifty years, speculation now has to be bold.

One has to read up on what is likely to happen and examine where it is going both technically and socially than be purely speculative. To do otherwise would be folly as there are too many people who can spot sloppy research. There really hasn't been much work in either case as a reflection of our current decade's attitudes to such changes either leaving plenty of latitude for super-human or alternative sub-species stories.

The public and press have declared Genetically-Modified foodstuffs as 'Frankenstein' creations without really understanding or comparing the definition. Victor Frankenstein created a sentient creature out of dead body parts that only ran out of control when it was deprived of what it wanted the most, a mate. G-M manipulation, even in its formative stages, can be controlled.

The pollen from such plants might spread but being infertile won't cross-fertilise. Geneticists are discovering it's easier to turn on or off DNA switches that control function than it is to splice in 'foreign' DNA material and still get the same results. This has far greater control than the cross-breeding over several decades to create new breeds and with fewer side effects. In an effort to get a blue-eyed white cat, breeders found they were also profoundly deaf simply because they were not genetic experts.

To create modified plants or organics needs sensible scientific management than random amateur guesswork. The imagined idea of doubling the DNA helix isn't likely to happen simply because such changes would be fatal to a living organism. Whether the worries are totally without foundation is something only time will tell.

Certainly the myth of 'things going wrong' from SF films is instilled in the public conscious far more than any success rate. Perhaps it's time that the balance is addressed in SF to show what happens when 'things go right'.

(c) copyright GF Willmetts 2000

Bibliography:
Star Trek : Where No Man Has Gone Before (TV)
Odd John - Olaf Stapleton
The Winged Man - A.E. Van Vogt And E. Mayne Hull
The Chrysalids - John Wyndham
The Midwich Cuckoos - John Wyndham
The Uncanny X-Men 1963 - present (comicbook) .

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OTHER CONTENT - December 2000

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JanSTir. 01/12/2000
Anyone interested in this subject would be well advised to check out Gattaca, it's a classic of the superhuman genre. Scaringly, it's probably what's going to happen to us!